People encountering deviants who violate a stereotype try to maintain the stereotype by subtyping the deviants. They use the deviants' additional attributes to justify subtyping them. Participants read about counterstereotypic targets. Participants who were given no additional information about targets, and so had no grounds for subtyping them, did generalize from them and changed their stereotypes. However, participants who were told that targets had an additional, neutral attribute appeared to use it as grounds for subtyping them; their stereotypes remained unchanged. Participants came to view the neutral attributes as atypical of the stereotype and as associated with deviance, that is, as good reasons for subtyping the deviant. Neutral attributes blocked generalization from truly counterstereotypic targets but not from overly stereotypic ones, suggesting that their effect was due to participants' attempts to explain away individuals who strongly challenge their stereotypes.
The Deviants
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One of the major challenges in human brain science is the functional hemispheric asymmetry of auditory processing. Behavioral and neurophysiological studies have demonstrated that speech processing is dominantly handled in the left hemisphere, whereas music processing dominantly occurs in the right. Using magnetoencephalography, we measured the auditory mismatch negativity elicited by band-pass filtered click-trains, which deviated from frequently presented standard sound signals in a spectral or temporal domain. The results showed that spectral and temporal deviants were dominantly processed in the right and left hemispheres, respectively. Hemispheric asymmetry was not limited to high-level cognitive processes, but also originated from the pre-attentive neural processing stage represented by mismatch negativity.
Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the hemispheric laterality of MMNm evoked by spectral versus temporal sound deviants that do not convey specific phonological, grammatical, or musical information. In order to exclude the possibility that the laterality of the MMNm originated from the sound stimulus itself, we counter-balanced total auditory inputs identical between spectral and temporal deviant conditions. The results of the present study provide a new insight into how the left and right hemispheres pre-attentively deal with the spectral and temporal features of natural sound signals.
It seems plausible that spectral and temporal sound information is differentially encoded into neural activity (Bendor and Wang 2007; Sakai et al. 2009). Spectral information is encoded into the maximal movement position of the basilar membrane in the cochlea. Therefore, in case of the SD condition, the groups of inner hair cells corresponding to SD sounds were different from those corresponding to standard sounds. In contrast, TD sounds had similar frequency characteristics to standard sound signals. Similar groups of inner hair cells on the tonotopic map in the cochlea are activated. In order to detect the TD sound signal, the central auditory system should analyze the temporal patterns of neural activity. The present results demonstrated that the MMNm latencies elicited by TD were significantly longer than those elicited by SD (Figs. 3, 4). First, we have to consider the timing of the SD and TD onsets. Theoretically, SD is detectable from the first click of the TS in the cochlea, whereas TD detection requires the second click of the 60 Hz band-pass filtered click trains deviated from the standard 30 Hz band-pass filtered clicks or the missing second click of the standard 60 Hz band-pass filtered click trains during presentation of the deviant 30 Hz band-pass filtered click trains to manifest in the central auditory system. Therefore, we first subtracted 16.7 ms from the MMNm_TD latency in order to compare it with the MMNm_SD latency. Even after this adjustment, MMNm_TD was significantly longer than MMNm_SD (Fig. 4), which suggested that different neural mechanisms contribute to the detection of spectral and temporal sound deviants. Neural encoding of the temporal patterns of auditory signals took longer and appeared to take place at a higher level of the auditory system than spectral coding. Previous MEG studies (Okamoto et al. 2009, 2012) also support this hypothesis by demonstrating that the temporal changes elicited significantly delayed auditory N1m responses, with a major deflection in the auditory evoked response having a latency of approximately 100 ms (Näätänen and Picton 1987), than those elicited by spectral changes.
When someone expresses a morally deviant opinion, this person is likely to face derogation by their group. We examined whether people reacted more positively to opinion deviance when social identity was induced from individual expressions, rather than deduced from ingroup similarities. Participants (n = 155 divided over 41 groups) engaged in small-group conversations. We manipulated social identity formation (induction vs. deduction) and the presence of deviance (vs. agreement), without using confederates. We directly compared reactions to opinion deviance for both normative positions (i.e., for the deviant and the normative group members). Questionnaires assessed group-members' belongingness and personal value to the group. Innovatively, we also tracked moment-to moment levels of belongingness throughout the conversation. We tested whether the responses of the deviant compared to normative group members differed depending on social identity formation. Overall, deviants experienced lower belongingness after opinion deviance than normative group members. However, the trajectories over time suggest that deviants began to recover their belongingness in inductively formed groups, but not in deductively formed groups. Furthermore, in inductively formed groups deviants were perceived to be more valuable to the group, than they were in deductively formed groups. Exploratory analyses on the effect of social identity formation on normative group members' trajectories of belongingness further suggest that being normative may be particularly beneficial when social identity is deduced. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical implications and the value of dynamic tracking as a methodology to examine small group processes.
N2 - When someone expresses a morally deviant opinion, this person is likely to face derogation by their group. We examined whether people reacted more positively to opinion deviance when social identity was induced from individual expressions, rather than deduced from ingroup similarities. Participants (n = 155 divided over 41 groups) engaged in small-group conversations. We manipulated social identity formation (induction vs. deduction) and the presence of deviance (vs. agreement), without using confederates. We directly compared reactions to opinion deviance for both normative positions (i.e., for the deviant and the normative group members). Questionnaires assessed group-members' belongingness and personal value to the group. Innovatively, we also tracked moment-to moment levels of belongingness throughout the conversation. We tested whether the responses of the deviant compared to normative group members differed depending on social identity formation. Overall, deviants experienced lower belongingness after opinion deviance than normative group members. However, the trajectories over time suggest that deviants began to recover their belongingness in inductively formed groups, but not in deductively formed groups. Furthermore, in inductively formed groups deviants were perceived to be more valuable to the group, than they were in deductively formed groups. Exploratory analyses on the effect of social identity formation on normative group members' trajectories of belongingness further suggest that being normative may be particularly beneficial when social identity is deduced. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical implications and the value of dynamic tracking as a methodology to examine small group processes.
AB - When someone expresses a morally deviant opinion, this person is likely to face derogation by their group. We examined whether people reacted more positively to opinion deviance when social identity was induced from individual expressions, rather than deduced from ingroup similarities. Participants (n = 155 divided over 41 groups) engaged in small-group conversations. We manipulated social identity formation (induction vs. deduction) and the presence of deviance (vs. agreement), without using confederates. We directly compared reactions to opinion deviance for both normative positions (i.e., for the deviant and the normative group members). Questionnaires assessed group-members' belongingness and personal value to the group. Innovatively, we also tracked moment-to moment levels of belongingness throughout the conversation. We tested whether the responses of the deviant compared to normative group members differed depending on social identity formation. Overall, deviants experienced lower belongingness after opinion deviance than normative group members. However, the trajectories over time suggest that deviants began to recover their belongingness in inductively formed groups, but not in deductively formed groups. Furthermore, in inductively formed groups deviants were perceived to be more valuable to the group, than they were in deductively formed groups. Exploratory analyses on the effect of social identity formation on normative group members' trajectories of belongingness further suggest that being normative may be particularly beneficial when social identity is deduced. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical implications and the value of dynamic tracking as a methodology to examine small group processes. 2ff7e9595c
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